a.
What is Method?
Method is "a way in Achieving something"
(Vienna Senjaya (2008).
Thus, the learning method can be interpreted as the means used to implement a plan that has been established
in a real and practical activities to achieve
learning goals. There are several
methods of learning that can be used to implement
learning strategies, including: (1) lecture, (2) demonstration,
(3) discussion, (4) simulation,
(5) laboratory, (6) field experience,
(7) brainstorming; (8) debates, (9 ) symposium, and so forth.
Learning techniques can
be done by a person as a way to implement a
specific method. For
example, the use of lecture
method in a class with a relatively large number of students who require
individual techniques, which would technically be different from the use
of methods that a class lecture on a limited
number of students. Similarly, the use of
the method of discussion,
it is necessary to use different techniques
in the classroom that
students classified as active with the students classified as passive
classes. In this case, the teacher can alternate
technique even in
the same corridor method.
Besides
that a Teaching Method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction.
Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration,
recitation, memorization, or combinations of these. The choice of teaching
method or methods to be used depends largely on the information or skill that
is being taught, and it may also be influenced by the aptitude and enthusiasm
of the students. There are many kinds of
various language teaching methods developed and used over the past century,
including the Grammar Translation
Method, the Direct Method, the Audio-lingual Method, Community Language Teaching,
the Silent Way, Suggestopedia, Total Physical
Response, and the Natural Approach.
1)
The Grammar Translation Method
The method used to teach it overwhelmingly bore those
objectives in mind, and came to be known (appropriately!) as the Classical
Method. It is now more commonly known in Foreign Language
Teaching circles as the Grammar Translation Method
According to Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979:3), the key
features of the Grammar Translation Method are as follows:
a.
Classes are
taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language.
b.
Much vocabulary
is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
c.
Long elaborate
explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
d.
Grammar provides
the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of words.
e.
Reading of
difficult classical texts is begun early.
f.
Little attention
is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in in
grammatical analysis.
g.
Often the only
drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target
language
into the mother tongue.
h.
Little or no
attention is given to pronunciation.
2)
The Direct Method
The appearance of the "Direct Method" thus
coincided with a new school of thinking that dictated that all foreign language
teaching should occur in the target language only, with no translation and an
emphasis on linking meaning to the language being
learned. The method became very popular during the first quarter of the
20th century, especially in private language schools in Europe where highly
motivated students could study new languages and not need to travel far in
order to try them out and apply them communicatively. One of the most
famous advocates of the Direct Method was the German Charles Berlitz, whose
schools and Berlitz Method are now world-renowned
Richards and Rodgers (1986:9-10) summarize the key
features of the Direct Method thus: Classroom instruction is conducted exclusively in the target
language.
a.
Only everyday
vocabulary and sentences are taught.
b.
Oral
communication skills are built up in a carefully traded progression organized
around
question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and
students in small, intensive classes.
c.
Grammar is
taught inductively.
d.
New teaching
points are taught through modeling and practice
e.
Concrete
vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas.
f.
Both speech and
listening comprehension are taught.
g.
Correct
pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
3)
The Audio-lingual Method
This new method incorporated many of the features
typical of the earlier Direct Method, but the disciplines mentioned above added
the concepts of teaching linguistic patterns in combination with something
generally referred to as "habit-forming". This method was one
of the first to have its roots "firmly grounded in linguistic and psychological
theory" (Brown 1994:57). The idea was to project the linguistic
patterns of the language (based on the studies of structural linguists) into
the minds of the learners in a way that made responses automatic and
"habitual". To this end it was held that the language
"habits" of the first language would constantly interfere, and the
only way to overcome this problem was to facilitate the learning of a new set
of "habits" appropriate.
Here is a summary of the key features of the
Audio-lingual
Method, taken from Brown (1994:57) and adapted from
Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979).
a.
New material is
presented in dialog form.
b.
There is
dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases, and overlearning.
c.
Structures are
sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time.
d.
Structural
patterns are taught using repetitive drills
e.
There is little
or no grammatical explanation.
f.
Grammar is
taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
g.
There is much
use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
h.
Great importance
is attached to pronunciation.
i.
Very little use
of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted.
j.
Successful
responses are immediately reinforced.
k.
There is great
effort to get students to produce error-free utterances.
l.
There is a
tendency to manipulate language and disregard content. In the early seventies, Charles Curran developed
4)
Community Language Learning
A new education model he called "Counseling Learning". This was essentially an example
of an
innovative
model that primarily considered affective factors as paramount in the learning process. Drawing on Carl Rogers' view that learners were to be considered not as
a class, but as a group, Curran's
philosophy dictated that students were to be thought of as "clients"
The Community Language Learning method involves some
of the following features:
a.
Students are to
be considered as "learner-clients" and the teacher as a
"teacher-councelor".
b.
A relationship
of mutual trust and support is considered essential to the learning process.
c.
Students are
permitted to use their native language, and are provided with translations from the teacher which they then attempt to apply.
d.
Grammar and
vocabulary are taught inductively.
e.
"Chunks"
of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listened to
- they are also transcribed with native language equivalents to
become texts the students work with.
f.
Students apply
the target language independently and without translation when they feel
inclined/ confident enough to do so.
g.
Students are
encouraged to express not only how they feel about the language, but how they
feel about the learning process, to which the teacher expresses empathy and
understanding.
h.
A variety of
activities can be included (for example, focusing on a particular grammar or
pronunciation point, or creating new sentences based on the
recordings/transcripts).
5)
The Silent Way
The Silent Way is that
teaching should be subordinated to learning. This principle is keeping with the
active role ascribed to the learner in the cognitive code approach.
At this point the lesson
ends. During the next few classes, the students will :
1.
Practice
with their new sounds and learn to produce accurate intonation and stress
patterns with the words and sentences.
2.
Learn
more English word for colors and where any new sounds are located on the sound
color chart
3.
Learn to
use the following items:
·
Give it
to m/her/him/them
·
Too
·
This/that/these/those
·
One/ones
·
Put.....here/there
·
Is/are
·
His/her/my/your/their/our
4.
Practice
making sentences with many different combinations of these items
5.
Practice
reading the sentences they have created on the wall charts.
6.
Work with
Fided Charts, which are charts summarizing the spelling of all the different
sound in English
7.
Practice
writing the sentences they have created
6)
Suggestopedia
Suggestopedia the
application of the study off suggestion to pedagogy, has been developed to help
students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful and thus to help
the overcome the barriers to learning.
Reviewing the principles of
The Suggestopedia Method :
·
Teacher
hope to accelerate the process by which students learn to use a foreign
language for everyday communication.
·
The
teacher is the authority in the classroom. In order to for the method to be
successful, the students must trust and respect her.
·
A
suggestopedic course is conducted in a classroom in which students are as
comportable as possible. Ideally, easy chairs, soft lightning, and music are
all available to contribute to a relaxing environment.
·
The
students can only respond nonverbally or with a few target language words they
have practiced.
·
The
students are relaxed and confident, they will not need to try hard to learn the
language.
·
Language
is the first of two planes in the two-plane process of communication. In the
second plane are the factors which influence the linguistic message.
·
Grammar
is dealt with explicitly but minimally. In fact, it is believed that students
will learn best if their conscious attention is focused, not on the language
forms, but on using the language.
·
Native
language translation is used to make the meaning of the dialog clear.
·
Evaluation
usually is conducted on students’ normal in-class performance and not through
formal test, which would threaten the relaxed atmosphere considered essential
for accelerated learning.
·
At least
at beginning levels, errors are not corrected immediately since the emphasis is
on students communicating their intended meaning. When errors of form do occur,
the teacher uses the form correctly later on during class.
7)
The Total Physical Response Method
Students listen and respond
to the spoken target language commands of their teacher. Students listen to
tape-recorded words, phrases, and sentences while they look at accompanying
pictures. The meaning of illustrated by pictures are also used as a device to
convey abstract meaning.
Reviewing the principles of
The Total Physical Response Method :
·
Total
Physical Response Method was developed in order to reduce the stress people
feel when studying foreign language and thereby encourage students to persist
in their study beyond a beginning level proficiency.
·
Initially,
the teacher is the director of all students behavior. The students are
imitators of her nonverbal model. At that point there will be a role reversal
with individual students directing the teacher and the other students.
·
The first
phase of a lesson in one of modeling. The instructor issues commands to a few
students, then performs the actions with them. The second phase these same
students demonstrate that they can understand the commands by performing them
alone.
·
The
teacher interact with the whole group of students and with individual students.
Students perform the actions together. Students can learn by watching each
other.
·
TPR
Method was developed was to reduce the stress people feel when studying foreign
languages
·
Culture
is the lifestyle of people who speak the language natively
·
Grammatical
structure and vocabulary are emphasized over other languages areas. These are
embedded within imperatives. The imperatives are single words and multi-word
chunks.
·
The
method is usually introduced in the students’ native language. After the
introduction, rarely would the mother tongue be used. Meaning is made clear
through body movements.
·
Theacher
will know immediately whether or not students understand by observing their
students’ actions.
·
It is
expected that students will make errors when they first begin speaking.
Theacers should be tolerant of them and only correct major errors.
8)
The Communicative Approach
We use the language to
accomplish some function, such as arguing, persuading, or promising. Moreover,
we carry out these functions within a social context. A Speaker will choose a
particular way to express his argument not only based upon his intent and his
level of emotion, but also on whom he is addressing and what his relationship
with that person is. For example, he may be more direct in arguing with his
friend than with his employer.
Reviewing the principles of
The Communicative Approach Method :
·
The goal
is to have one’s students become communicatively competent. Communicative
competence involves being able to use the language appropriate to a given
social context.
·
The role
of the teacher and the students are the teacher is a facilitator of his students’
learning. The teacher is a manager of classroom activities.
·
The most
obvious characteristic of the Communicative Approach is that almost everything
that is done is done with a communicative intens.Students use the language a
great deal through communicative activities such as games, role plays, and
problem solving tasks.
·
The
teacher is the enitiator of the activities but he does not always himself
interact with the students.
·
One of
the basic assumptions of the Communicative Approach is that students will be
more motivated to study a foreign.
·
Linguistic
competence, the knowledge of forms and meaning is, however, just one part of
communicative competence.
·
Another
aspec of communications competence is knowledge of the function language is used
for.
·
In language
functions : Language Function are emphasized overs form. Typically, althought
not always, a functional syllabus is used.
·
The
students’ native language has no particular role in the communicative Approach
the target language should be used not only during communicative activities,
but also, for example in explaining the activities to the students on in
assigning homework.
·
A
theacher evaluate not only his students’ accuracy, but also their fluency. The
students who has the most control of the structures and vocabulary is not
always the best communicator.
·
Errors of
form are tolerated and are seen as a natural outcome of the development of
communication skills. Students can have limited linguistic knowledge and still
be successful communicators.
